The state of spanking in America brings to
mind the “rule of thumb”. The
expression comes from traditional English law that said it was acceptable for a
man to beat his wife with a stick not larger in diameter than his thumb. Wife beating was considered necessary
and appropriate to control women’s behavior; but some men got carried away and
some women died, so it was deemed necessary to limit the possibility of excess.
Rule of Bruise? Today in the U.S., an
estimated 94%-99% of toddlers are hit by their parents, on average two or three times a week. An estimated 35% of
infants are spanked (Straus & Stewart, 1999). Corporal punishment, what
Michael Peal advocates as “physical discipline” is outlawed in 31 other countries, including most recently
the new African nation of South Sudan. In America it is controversial even among pediatricians, but
commonly considered a customary and necessary form of child rearing, especially
in the South. Corporal punishment in schools is legal in 20 states and in
domestic settings in all states.
The definitions of corporal punishment make
clear that the causing of pain is intentional. This is notable since it focuses
attention on why the child was hit, instead of on the fact that hitting hurts. The
“instruments” Peal recommends using to inflict pain on infants still are legal
in all states as long as they do not leave marks that last more than a day. But
spanking as a disciplinary strategy is losing credibility. There is clear agreement in the
scientific community that spanking very young children in order to control their behavior is counter-productive. In a series of meta-analyses including 88 studies (none
including physical abuse) with over 36,000 participants, Gershoff (2002) found
the use of physical discipline in young children was significantly associated
with one positive short-term outcome: immediate compliance; and with 10
negative outcomes short- and long-term outcomes including decreased quality of
parent/child relationship, increased aggression in the child, increased delinquent
and anti-social behavior, and less than optimal child mental health. Four recent studies focused specifically
on infants and toddlers. Berlin (2009) found in children attending Head Start,
spanking at age 1 was associated with more aggressive behavior at age 2 and
lower developmental scores at age 3. Frequent spanking before age 2 led to more
behavior problems in white children, but not Hispanic or African American children
(Slade & Wissow 2004). Three-year olds who spanked more frequently had more
behavioral problems at age 5 (Taylor et al 2010). These outcomes are especially concerning when considered along with the findings of several studies suggesting that while
spanking does not necessarily constitute abuse, there is a risk that spanking
can escalate into abuse. The most
powerful predictor of spanking is a parent’s aggravation with the child’s
behavior. Spanking tends to lead
to more aggressive behavior which leads to more parental aggravation and more
punishment. (McKenzi et al 2011)
Parents who report their child has a
difficult temperament are more likely to spank. And spanking is likely to make
the child even more difficult. Bugental et al (2003) showed that very early use
of physical discipline fosters heightened stress response in children so that
the child who is frequently spanked suffers unusual “wear and tear” on their
coping capacity. They become less able to regulate their emotional response and adapt to unexpected, challenging or novel life events, inviting more
punishment. Infants and toddlers
are at specific risk for injury, especially from use of “little instruments” as
recommended by the Peals, due to their small bodies and relatively large heads
(Crandall et al 2006). Spanking must be considered a warning sign of potential
abuse. Who spanks? A powerful predictor of spanking
is a mother’s belief in corporal punishment. Other indicators are young
maternal age, low socio-economic status, low social support, parental stress,
depression, and lack of knowledge of child development and unreasonable
expectations. Michael Pearl demonstrates
unreasonable expectations in his example of the six-month
old that “pulls a stunt” and shows willfulness and defiance by throwing his
bowl on the floor “because he does not like what’s in it”. No six-month old has
the cognitive ability to pull a stunt out of defiance. A baby does not understand “No”. Even if the recommended 10 “licks”
stops the undesired behavior, the baby has no idea of what to do instead. He
does not learn appropriate behavior, only how to avoid pain. A child is
unlikely to distinguish between spanking and hitting a friend who takes his
toy. (I don’t see much difference either) The research suggests that home
visitors can reduce the incidence and severity of intentional infliction of pain as a means to control behavior by reflecting with parents on their child’s
developmental capabilities, effectiveness of spanking, and alternative strategies. A key
reflective question: What do you want to teach? What do you think he learns when you swat him? See Beginnings Parent’s Guide page
186. References and resources Bugental, DB, Martorell, GA &
Barraza, V. (2002) The hormonal costs of subtle forms of infant maltreatment. Hormones and Behavior43; 237-244. Combs-Orme, T. & Cain, DS. (2008) Predictors of mothers’ use of spanking
with their infants. Child Abuse &
Neglect 32; 649-657. Donnelly, M. &. Straus. MA
(Eds) (2005) Corporal Punishment of
Children in Theoretical Perspective Yale University Press Global Initiative to End All
Corporal Punishment of Children http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/prohib_states.html Huang, CC. & Lee, I (2008). The first three years of parenting: Evidence
from the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study. Children and Youth Services Review 30; 1447-1457. MacKenzie, MJ., Nicklas, E. et al. (2011) Who spanks infants and toddlers? Evidence
from the fragile families and child well-being study. Children and Youth Services Review 33; 1364-1373. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3114638/ Straus, MA. & Stewart, JH. (1999).
Corporal Punishment by American Parents: National Data of Prevalence, Chronicity,
Severity and Duration, in Relation to Child and Family Characteristics.Clinical and Child Psychology Review 2 (2);
55-70. Next: If not spanking,
then what? Age-appropriate discipline
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